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Researching indigenous people has been characterized by debate on what indigenous knowledge systems and epistemologies should guide the research. This debate is a result of limited knowledge of who indigenous people are, and what epistemologies, philosophies, cultural values and practices that inform their physical and spiritual beliefs. There are questions on how the indigenous research paradigm and research methodology can help to provide quality research outcomes. However, these questions have deterred emerging scholars and practitioners who are interested in researching indigenous people. This chapter aimed to advance awareness of what scholars and practitioners need to know about researching indigenous people in contemporary times. An exploratory approach was used to identify, describe and discuss information from diverse publishing sites to build holistic knowledge for scholars and practitioners. The concepts that the scholars and practitioners can refer to, for an appropriate understanding of indigenous people were defined. Then, considered why the research on the indigenous population by scholars and practitioners matters. The chapter presented and discussed the indigenous research paradigm and research methodology suitable for the indigenous setting. The chapter also explored relevant human rights frameworks and the competency to guide scholars and practitioners in an indigenous setting.
African Indigenous Sustainability Research Education and Consulting Foundation (AiSRECF), Bayelsa State, Nigeria
*Address all correspondence to: igbafeeucharia@gmail.com
1. Introduction
Research plays a vital role in developing, protecting, and preserving human life. Scholars and practitioners engage in research for personal promotion and professional development. Researching is a methodical examination of life-associated challenges by gathering reliable information with different designs, methods, and analytical approaches for better understanding and solutions [1]. Researching the indigenous population or people by scholars and practitioners in contemporary times demands an understanding of indigenous knowledge and epistemologies embedded in their cultural philosophies to assure right-based practices that recognize and promote respect for indigenous peoples’ heritage. This implies that research targets new information and seeks to add or verify existing knowledge to make decisions and inspire action.
Researching the indigenous population contributes to understanding their social and cultural identities, natural environment, and spiritualities [2]. Researching indigenous people in the indigenous setting seeks to obtain information about ‘who they are, their pattern of knowledge construction (epistemologies), realities (ontologies), and moralities (axiology) [3, 4]. Researching indigenous populations with a relevant human rights framework promotes approaches that do not impinge on the rights of the participants ethically or legally, whether in research methodology or publication of the research results [5]. The human rights framework for indigenous people advances sustainable interaction and relationships between indigenous and non-indigenous people [researcher].
According to Igbafe [1], reciprocal interaction is a two-way communication relevant to authentic relationships vital for gathering information required for the betterment of the people. Reciprocal interaction is rooted in the indigenous people’s way of life, in which relationships are promoted as the essence of life. The indigenous people describe a distinct social and cultural group that shares collective ancestral ties to the lands and natural resources where they live, occupy, or from which they have been displaced. The land and natural resources are inextricably linked to their identities, cultures, livelihoods, and physical and spiritual well-being ([6], p. 1). A more inclusive definition described indigenous peoples as:
‘People with self-identification at the individual level and accepted by the community as their member; historical continuity with pre-colonial or pre-settler societies; strong link to territories and surrounding natural resources; distinct social, economic, or political systems; distinct language, culture, and beliefs; form non-dominant groups of society; resolve to maintain and reproduce their ancestral environments and systems as distinctive peoples and communities ([7], pp. 1–2).
The definitions identify indigenous people as a group passionate about their indigenous identities, cultures, philosophies and spiritual practices and self-determination as an individual or collective group for the betterment of their lives. [8], went on to explain that African indigenous people are often identified as marginalized and discriminated against by diverse organizations. [8], elaborates that African indigenous people could be identified with the following characteristics:
political and economic marginalization rooted in colonialism;
de facto discrimination is based often on the dominance of agricultural peoples in the State system (e.g., lack of access to education and health care by hunters and herders);
the particularities of culture, identity, economy and territoriality that link hunting and herding peoples to their home environments in deserts and forests (e.g., nomadism, diet, knowledge systems);
some indigenous peoples… are physically distinct, which makes them subject to specific forms of discrimination.
Researching indigenous peoples in an African setting aims to advance a right-based approach that recognizes and respects indigenous identities, cultures, philosophies and spiritual practices and self-determination fundamental for developing and strengthening knowledge systems. Researching indigenous people is vital to understanding these concepts, giving meaning to information gathered and giving voice to indigenous people stated in the United Nations Human Rights framework [9]. To increase the quality of the information in this chapter, an exploratory approach was used to identify what scholars and practitioners need to know about researching indigenous peoples. The exploratory research contributes new insights into the understanding of a domain with scant information by describing and discussing different perspectives [10, 11]. The use of the exploratory approach is on gathering relevant information and explaining, rather than investigating or interpreting the concepts in a particular context.
In this chapter, I explain relevant terms and terminologies to promote conscious awareness of the indigenous population, the goals, and the importance of researching the indigenous population to indigenous people, researchers, and research institutions. This chapter discussed the relevant human rights framework for studying indigenous peoples, the indigenous research paradigm, and the research methodology.
2. Concepts vital in researching indigenous population
Researching indigenous populations requires clarification of some terms to enhance an understanding of the meaning and how are applied in this chapter (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Concept vital for researching indigenous people.
2.1 Indigenous knowledge
The Indigenous knowledge system is generational knowledge developed from experiences, tested in practices, and affirmed by results, transferred from generation to generation to ensure indigenous people’s sustainable growth. ([8], p. 8) is of the view that African Indigenous Knowledge is shaped by the development of wisdom and communal values—it is the application of knowledge in a moral, cultural and environmental framework which makes African knowledge so important for sustainability….” Indigenous knowledge has been defined as the understandings, skills, and philosophies developed by societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings…including cultural life…systems of classification, resources, practices, social interactions, rituals, and spirituality” ([12], p. 8). The definition presents the understandings, skills, and philosophies as a vital set of theoretical frameworks in the indigenous people’s conceptions about life which form the foundation for knowledge development, verification, and sharing. ([13], p. 31) affirms that African indigenous knowledge incorporates indigenous beliefs, practices, customs, worldviews, and informal forms of education. [13] explained that African indigenous knowledge is developed and strengthened by communal histories, communal thoughts, and indigenous literary and philosophical foundations, which are vital for understanding indigenous people and their epistemology.
2.2 Indigenous epistemology
Epistemology is the philosophical study of the process of gaining knowledge through providing answers to questions that help in knowledge construction. Epistemological questions are: How do we know [search for information] or how can we know [process of searching for the knowledge] or how do we know that we know [process of testing our knowledge], how do we know that what we know is true [affirmation of acquired knowledge [14]. Epistemological questions connect human thoughts to reality and help to identify the acceptable or unacceptable nature [15, 16]. Epistemology reveals the philosophies, thoughts, values, and theories of past and present knowledge [17]. Epistemology presents values and ideas that have been areas of study which are an aspect of a larger body of epistemological work [18, 19]. Epistemologies, therefore, are the core of understanding a set of theoretical plans that is belief-driven to promote and advance the knowledge system of indigenous people.
African indigenous epistemologies describe the indigenous theory of Knowledge, the African conception of the nature of knowledge, the means of gaining the knowledge, the criteria for the assessment of the validity of knowledge, the purpose of the pursuit of knowledge, and the role that knowledge plays in human existence [20]. The pursuit of knowledge with indigenous epistemology advances an African philosophy with a distinctive epistemic identity and unique knowledge [21]. African indigenous philosophy is an intellectual product produced with cultural, historical, and geographic traditional standards and promoted to establish African knowledge order and to direct focus on problems relating to African experiences [22]. The African experiences reveal the critical truth of Africa’s local realities and the different ways they create meaning out of life events [23]. African perception of realities and ways of knowing are developed and strengthened with African indigenous philosophies.
2.3 Indigenous philosophies
Indigenous philosophies refer to philosophical discourses developed by Africans and their descendants [24, 25]. African indigenous philosophies are a set of experiences and explanations relating to the values and practice, which in most circumstances involve the worldview of the local communities, tested and verified by the locals, unlike the assumption from colonialism proposing that African knowledge is not [26]. African indigenous philosophies provide research scholars and practitioners with information on the nature of African realities, and their association with cultural values and practices to enable the researchers to engage in critical thinking about the people and their experiences [27].
2.4 Ontology
Ontology is concerned with the body of knowledge which studies the concepts like existence (who are am I), being (why do I or we exist), becoming (what changes am I going to encounter as I continue to exist) and reality (what is the quality of my existence and how do I face the realities of my existence whether positive or negative) [21, 28]. In this regard, ontology deals with the features of reality, connected with a fundamental question of what indigenous communities regard as what is real or false based on their collective worldview of realities [29]. Ontology in researching indigenous people draws from the knowledge of the community, their ways of life, their common sense and experiences developed from a body of knowledge presented in oral history, proverbs and folktales [30]. Ontology is relevant for the understanding of how African indigenous people view the realities of life through oral stories and proverbs to improve the quality of their existence.
African indigenous ontologies promote and advance African realities inseparable from the culture and histories [31]. The knowledge of the culture, histories, and connectedness with the environment comprising the living and the non-living helps in the understanding of their relationship and duties to everyone in the setting [32, 33, 34]. This knowledge develops and strengthens ontological security describes ‘as … the confidence that most human beings have in the continuity of their self-identity ([35], p. 59). Ontological safety limits the use of western paradigms and epistemologies [29, 36] in researching indigenous people.
2.5 Axiology
Axiology refers to the values of a given setting. Values are subdivided into ethics and esthetics rooted in the recognition of basic human, community and civil rights, as well as the beauty of the natural environment [16]. Ethics recognizes the rights and wrongs within indigenous settings unique to their worldviews and experiences. Axiology reveals the ethical values of the indigenous people such as moral laws that guide their knowledge, attitude and interaction in the setting [37]. Axiology in researching indigenous people is concerned with the standard of conduct expressed in cultural values and practices that Africans are known for or expected to display. African standards of conduct are principles derived from ‘cultural inheritance: identity, history and beliefs that make life worth living ([37], p. 49). Indigenous cultural values encourage respect for everyone, the land, and other resources, the aged, the significant others in charge of the sacred resources, spiritualists, and clans [38]. These cultural principles guide how indigenous people perceive, evaluate, preserve and maintain their cultural behavior [37]. African indigenous cultural values discourage any activity that would demean cultural inheritance and disrespect cultural practices in the indigenous setting.
Scholars and practitioners should recognize and respect the moral standards of indigenous people evidenced in their spirituality, the pattern of communication, interaction, and relationship to assure immediate acceptance. Learning how to display respect for everyone, elders, and significant others to conform to the cultural order of the community is vital in an indigenous setting. Respectful behavior promotes collaboration, reciprocal interaction, and communication patterns characterized by verbal and non-verbal behavior [39]. Knowledge of indigenous ethical standards and practices guides scholars and practitioners to:
Be responsive to the practice of indigenous people as an individual and collective group.
Employ flexible approaches that are rigorous but reliable and ethical.
Consider the indigenous people’s concepts of time defined by ‘right time’ [suitability: meaning the research time should not conflict or interfere with any cultural, spiritual festival or market day].
The time should be suitable for elders who are the custodian of law and traditional orders, instead of the schedule by the researcher and their institutions.
Display a respectful attitude in communication, interactions and relationships throughout research activities.
Knowledge of indigenous ethical standards and practices reduces complex relationship issues and optimizes honesty, respect, and integrity in collaborating for the quality of data. In the chapter, it is essential to identify the objectives and importance of researching indigenous peoples.
3. Why does research on the indigenous population by scholars and practitioners matter
Indigenous people play a vital role in the preservation and protection of traditional beliefs and practices in the field of indigenous knowledge systems. The principal aim of researching indigenous is to promote the study of indigenous people and share the information with the general public, and policymakers and produce an evidence-based document for future practice. Recognition and giving a voice to indigenous people have become the rationale for the increase in research on them. There is evidence that researching indigenous people reveals their unique knowledge, epistemologies and relationships between cultural values, practice and rationality of knowledge construction [23].
Researching indigenous people is critical to the development and preservation of indigenous worldviews addressing multiple perspectives and providing information for the understanding of differences in indigenous people, contributing to human diversity, and rich cultures and respecting spiritual, traditional and philosophies to achieve sustainable and equitable development [9]. Hence, researching indigenous people has the following benefits:
3.1 Multiple perspectives
African indigenous people’s lives describe as “a part of a scientific tradition that advocates multiple perspectives in the understanding of indigenous peoples ([40], pp. xvi–xviii). Researchers understanding the different perspectives of African realities situate the data analysis to effectively identify and understand how the indigenous population perceives, thinks, and seeks to address issues confronting them [41].
The rationale for this goal is from the assumption that African indigenous people have diverse perspectives because of differences in ethnic groups. The ethnic groups within larger indigenous populations have cultural values and practices informing their lifestyle and ways of handling challenges. In studying indigenous people, most of these perspectives are either grouped or undermined, which produces misunderstanding, misinterpretation, and misrepresentation in research interpretations, findings, and reporting of the results. Understanding the different perspectives from indigenous epistemologies would enable scholars and practitioners to approach researching the indigenous population unbiased.
3.2 Interpret and align complex information
Interpreting information about the indigenous population could be complex without knowledge of indigenous epistemology. Indigenous peoples’ epistemologies promote critical thinking to ensure that meaning creation integrates indigenous people’s ways of perception of realities with limited bias [30]. Bias reduction is by analyzing data gathered from indigenous people with cultural, spiritual, and natural environment principles.
3.3 Developing human capital for indigenous research
Human capital development is about developing and improving knowledge, skills, and attitude. The development of human capital is required to the meet demands of well-trained and well-prepared researchers and a growing commitment to study indigenous peoples. Well-trained refers to having the best education of indigenous people and their epistemologies and how to transfer the training in the research field. Well-prepared refers to having the skills to relate, interact and obtain in-depth data on the problem understudy. Researching the indigenous population would drive the motivation and determination among emerging scholars and practitioners in tertiary education, and increase inclusion in the curriculum or courses on research methodology.
3.4 Improving experiences of researchers of indigenous people
The goal of tertiary education is to solve human problems. Researching the life of indigenous people helps in better understanding of ways to interact, relate and protect their rights to existence. A lack of funding for extensive study has demotivated emerging researchers and increased experiences of frustration for existing scholars and practitioners [1]. Researching indigenous people would increase the possibility of funding support across funding agencies and improve the experiences of researchers.
3.5 Increasing skills to work with indigenous people
Researching the indigenous population would expose emerging scholars and practitioners to unfamiliar cultures and practices. Equipping academics with skills to work with indigenous people would increase the understanding of African perspectives, promote better acceptance of these perspectives and build better relationships between researchers and indigenous people. It would advance trust, partnership in decision making, and information sharing and improve working with indigenous people. Working with indigenous people would increase documentation of research outcomes for better sustainable development of indigenous communities.
4. Differences in indigenous and Western thinking in research
There is a recognizable difference between African and Western thinking in research. African indigenous thinking in research is concerned about human beings and their environment as co-constructor of knowledge, thus experiences, intuition and supernatural power are means of knowing to address human problems. Intuitive knowledge is derived from personal perceptions and experiences. Africans also think knowledge is a product of supernatural revelation. While western thinking is that knowledge is an outcome of a scientific or empirical process. Knowledge without scientific backing is not authentic and human problems should be addressed with the outcome of scientific evidence. There are other sources of differences in thinking as relates to western and African indigenous research. Table 1 compares the differences between African indigenous and western thinking in research. It ties the section together and provides a nice simplification of everything discussed so far.
Construct
Definition
African indigenous thinking
Western thinking
The family, clan or community system
A family comprises people related by blood, A clan/community comprises different families and ancestors
Africans place value on collaboration, interdependence and shared responsibilities. Collaboration encourages the formation of a connection, communication and alignment with other people to increase the communal sense of belonging.
Western thinking promotes a nuclear family system, where individuality is preferred instead of extended family orientation.
We/us refers to collectivism through the establishment of a connection with others in solving or preventing problems as against “I” The ‘I’ concept encourages individuality in problem-solving leaving the individual alone, stressed and confused.
The notion of we/us is achieved by looking at life and death situations through the effects on families and communities. This help to search for causes for the occurrence to establish the fundamental relations that eventually produce a framework to address the body, which in complete terms means “collective frameworks or body of solution.” The individual can only say: ‘I am because we are; and since we are, therefore I am. This is the cardinal point in the understanding of the African view of man.
The notion of “I” focused on individuality in problem identification and intervention. The idea of “I” detaches solutions from other members of the community who may be directly or indirectly affected.
The establishment supernatural domain of human existence
Africans acknowledge the existence of a supreme being called God and the existence of their ancestors. God or the ancestors can prevent, protect or allow humans to suffer for their disobedience and sins.
Science produces the ultimate solution to human problems.
Therapy emphasizing the focus on practical applications of education.
The healing approaches by the African healer and western therapists
African sangomas/healers use verbal and expressed communication in dancing, songs and music to promote healing because of the belief that some words cannot be expressed in words but in action.
Western therapists use verbal communication (talking cure) to study and understand clients.
Africans think of illness in terms of God, ancestors, pollution and witchcraft. However, African healers use their medium to diagnose and distinguish natural from supernatural causation
Western think of illness as a result of chance, heredities or lifestyle,
This refers to the natural environment and advances reciprocal(two-way) interaction between humans and nature.
African believe the physical environment is vital for the cognitive, emotional and spiritual development and healing of human beings’ positive time relationship with the environment perseveres health and negative Relationships produce such illness and mental disturbance to the people.
The western beliefs in the body, mind and soul. These are the use of medicine and therapy as solutions to mental illness.
There are perspectives fundamental in researching the indigenous population that is derived from African indigenous thinking reflected in their epistemologies. These perspectives are entrenched in indigenous people’s paradigm recognized in concepts, practices, and values that define their holistic existence. Paradigm involves a dialogic relationship action within the setting in which indigenous people exist ([47], p. 51). An indigenous research paradigm is described as one in which knowledge is shared in the relationship among humans and between humans and the cosmos, and which requires relational accountability, with researchers meeting a few responsibilities to an extended relational network that includes humans, the natural world, and the spirit world ([48], pp. 176–177). Some studies provided an example of indigenous paradigms [49, 50], and are illustrated in Table 2 below.
Paradigm
Characteristics of indigenous paradigm
Axiology
Valued knowledge comes from many sources including dreams, the ancestors, stories, and experience, and is embedded in the land
Epistemology
Legitimacy is based on connectivity, physical and spiritual nature of life, knowledge, and existence
Ontology
Realities are predicated on being embodied and connected. Reality is not immutable and there are different layers of reality that are contextual and related to being a knowledge holder
Fluid emplaced learning and the expression of experiential insight through stories, dreams, elders, ancestors, and the natural world
Axiology
Indigenous control of research, respect, reciprocity, safety, non-obtrusiveness, deep listening, non-judgemental reflection, responsibility, holistic logic, self-awareness, and subjectivity
The indigenous paradigm shapes and reshape how indigenous people live and construct knowledge. The indigenous paradigm guides researchers on what is relevant in understanding the processes indigenous people follow in knowledge construction. The section focuses on four paradigm perspectives such as the clan, environment, spirituality, eldership, and reciprocal interaction that determine the epistemology, axiology, and ontology of indigenous people. The concepts establish the standard model for understanding indigenous people. The concepts also guide the activities of the researcher with critical questions such as:
Who/what is to be researched and analyzed?
What are the setting and the connection to indigenous people to be studied?
What are the spiritual beliefs likely to influence the people to be studied and the appropriate question to be asked?
Who are the elders and what are their essence in the research to be conducted? These paradigms are presented and discussed in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Indigenous research paradigms.
5.1 Clan as an indigenous research paradigm
A clan is an organized integrated system, ruled by leaders who are custodians of law and order. In a clan, people are bounded by relatedness such as kinsmen or kindred. The term ‘Clans’ refers to a group of families related by blood from a shared forefather living together in an area, often considered their community [51]. This suggests that clans are knitted by blood, the descent of families and the extended family system; thus, a clan is a natural life progression from shared ancestors. A clan comprises humans and the natural environment (plants, rivers and animals). In modern African society, a clan is referred to as a community comprising different tribes or ethnic groups. An ethnic group refers to a group of people bonded by common ancestral lineage. Consequently, the fundamental component of human existence is found in the group, not in individuality. In this regard, the clan pursues shared existence, collaboration is respected over rivalry and individuality. Collaboration is important; hence, empathy and support are considered the ways to live and make progress. Collaboration is also a vital part of family existence and organization which is reflected in communal living. For example, the component of an African family may include the parents, children, brothers, sisters, cousins, aunts and uncles and they cooperatively care for and support each other [52].
Empathy is a principle in action. Empathy acts as a uniting power in connecting families and the community “as social creatures allowing them to know what other people are thinking and feeling, to emotionally engage with them, to share their thoughts and feelings, and to care for their wellbeing ([53], p. 2). Empathy is often used to explain the accommodation of relatives and shared communal care as well as support. Providing care to relatives is an acceptable obligation, since, the purpose of the support is to build a sustainable clan. Accommodating relatives is also a source of connection between family units and the community. The belief in the unified clan and extended family is an important characteristic of African indigenous people that increases support in times of life crisis or death. To achieve a clan-centred and integrated system, the families as a community promote reciprocal relationships and interaction with humans, nature, and the environment for sustainable existence. People are conscientious with the belief that extinction of one element will lead to exposure of others to vulnerabilities. Hence, clan members are also willing to change their thinking and behavior to protect and defend the clan, thus this perspective guided clan welfare and continued existence as an integrated system. Clan plays an important role in the life of the indigenous population as follows:
Protecting the cultural heritage by ensuring that their members are committed to their values and practices.
Preserving the indigenous cultural heritage through teaching and encouraging willingness to practice the values in obedience that comes through respect for cultural identity.
Maintaining the cultural heritage through diligently continuing its restoration and acceptance national and international.
The knowledge of the clan and kindreds that form the major and minor ethnic groups, and the philosophies that influence and determine how data are gathered and interpreted would enhance the quality of the research.
5.2 The natural environment as an indigenous research paradigm
The natural environment is concerned with how the entirety of the clan and natural resources interact to influence the other. The indigenous people have a standard of conduct and relationships that encourage reciprocal interaction in protecting and preserving the natural environment. Reciprocity is in the recognition and respect of the two-way interaction between humans and other elements of the natural environment [1, 54]. The reciprocal interaction is derived from the assumption that humans and the natural environment contribute to each other’s progress [1, 55]. Some studies affirmed the natural environment as indigenous paradigm research [56, 57]. Given that human interaction with the natural environment has been found to shape consciousness and thoughts about issues [58].
The indigenous people’s interaction with the natural environment is sacred, spiritual and rooted in cultural practices and traditional customs aimed to improve living. Researchers need to identify and understand the sets of assumptions guiding indigenous people and their natural environment helps in framing the research problem, methods and approaches to data interpretation.
5.3 Spirituality as an indigenous research paradigm
Spirituality cannot be separated from indigenous people because it is informing every aspect of indigenous society, like agriculture, death, diet, dress, economics, health, marriage, and political art [59]. African indigenous spirituality recognizes that beliefs and practices are important for human survival. Sickness is often perceived as an outcome of a breakdown in the health practice or relationship between the individual and nature, people, or ancestors. Ancestors are considered a source of blessing or curse to their living descendants [59]. People who care, respect, and recognize supernatural beings attract blessings from their ancestors and while those who neglect their ancestors receive curses [60]. Indigenous spirituality is a part of the cultural heritage, born out of the experience and deep reflection of African forebearers, it provides answers to the stirring of the human spirit and elaborates on the profundity of the experience of the divine-human encounter based on the resources of Africa’s cultural heritage and insight ([61], p. 67).
Understanding spirituality builds the connection between indigenous people and their ancestors for power to protect, prevent and punish. The power to protect and prevent punishment is inherently spiritual. The reverence of the spiritual beings or ancestors with songs and praises is the commonest way to obtain life progress. Thus, spirituality to indigenous people is “shared or participatory, open consciousness of, and exchange of ideas with, the extended interpersonal connection (ancestors, generations to come, and the cosmos). Within this networked relationality, getting guidance or counsel from a relative who has died is considered valuable information to many indigenous scholars ([62], p. 40). Although research methodologies that encourage information gathering from deceased ancestors [63]. The Indigenous research paradigm recognizes and respects the role and place of spirituality in academic study [64, 65]. Indigenous spirituality contributes to the understanding of ways in which knowledge is influenced, learned, and formed by divine powers [58].
5.4 Eldership as an indigenous research paradigm
The concept of eldership defines the position of authority, power, and leadership in African indigenous society. The elders are the custodians of law and order in the community and are delegated administrative activities. The elders oversee the judicial systems, setting rules and enforcing them. Elders ensure that the indigenous institutional cultures and traditional systems are maintained and protected. Elders have deep knowledge of history, cultural relics and documents, geography, nature and environment, legends, poetry, reasoning, riddles, proverbs, and storytelling. The elders inculcate diverse ways of reasoning deemed appropriate for survival to the younger generation to enable them to continue in protecting and preserving the ancestral shared knowledge for a life of services.
Given elders contribute to intergenerational unity by transmitting knowledge, values, and cultural practices in a holistic approach ([66], p. 667), eldership as an indigenous research paradigm provide researchers with rules and regulations guiding indigenous peoples, the concepts, and belief pattern to guide the study. Elders guide the scholars and practitioners on whom to consult and how to engage in the process of consultation.
Indigenous research methodology has been defined as research by and for indigenous people using techniques and methods drawn from the tradition and knowledge of those people [67]. An Indigenous research methodology is an approach that promotes and advances:
self-determination, social change, cultural maintenance, and revitalization…. It recognizes the values of indigenous people as individual and collective groups rather than objectifying the subject. It is a flexible model that encompasses the diversity of each community, validating their voice, through acknowledging the knowledge passed on to the researcher with respect and oral consistency.
Indigenous research methodology provides a detailed description and analysis of what constitutes indigenous knowledge transmitted from generation to generation, from various knowledge systems thought through divination, a philosophical concept like ibuanyidandan, and storytelling with ethical standards of the indigenous setting.
6.1 Divination and consultation methodology
Divination is concerned with a system of knowledge production across every phase of human life. Ifa divination has been described as a highly tentacular system comprising computer science, mathematics, human evolution, medicine, geography, history, and astronomy are locked up in the numerous Ifa verses ([68], p. 1). Divination is part of indigenous epistemology that attempts to diagnose, analyze, and identify solutions to problems. The approach to consultation differs in many indigenous settings. The consultant is the person chosen by the gods such as the Ifa priest, the native doctor, and the chief priest. The instrument of consultation includes cowrie, shells, kola nuts and sticks, and a divination chain [69]. Each of these objects carries a message and the language can only be understood by the consultants. The objects consulted connect the individual or group consulting to their roots to diagnose the problem and identify the solution. The Ifa divination is used to provide spiritual guidance to those seeking healing from physical and health concerns. Divination is firmly rooted in traditional spirituality. In divination, mastering the objects of divination, the systems and signs, and the ability to interpret the messages [70] helps indigenous people gain knowledge through supernatural powers.
Divination as an indigenous research methodology deal with ‘symbolic, intensive, and diagrammatic ways of reading the world and tapping into forces that compose events to unfold their ramifications and draw lines from the known to the unknown [70]. Divination has been found to share similarities with western diagnosis as the analytical approaches look for signs in human presented problems (Table 3).
No
Comparing of terms
Divination [indigenous]
Diagnosis [western]
1
Role
To inquire into the root of the problem
To investigate the cause of the problem
2
Object of investigation
Divination chains, cowries, sticks, or kola nuts
Laboratory tests and radiological tests
3
Interpretation of the results
Provided by the divinator guided by Ifa verses derived from supernatural powers and ancestral knowledge
Provided by the medical professional who analyzed the result.
4
Treatment
Prescribed by the divinator who is also knowledgeable in herbal medicine and ritual practices
Prescribed by a medical professional or any other individual knowledgeable on the tenets of drugs and medication
Table 3.
Comparison of divination and diagnosis process.
6.2 Ibuanyidandan and collaborative methodology
Ibuanyidandan is a philosophy with origin from the Igbo tribe of the southeast geopolitical zone of Nigeria. Ibuanyidandan describes the ‘spirit of unity and quality in harmony’ [71]. The ‘Ibuanyidandan’ is a product of three indigenous Igbo language terms: (a) Ibu meaning ‘Load or errand’; (b) Anyi meaning ‘insurmountable force’ (c) Danda (ants). The concept of ants ‘danda’ illustrates the power of ants to overcome the greatest troublesome problems if they work in a concordant mutual way [71]. The ant’s uniqueness in teamwork as relates to carrying loads to solve their problems informed these philosophical thoughts. Ibuanyidandan is a philosophical stance that promotes harmonious complementation and progressive transformation in knowledge production. Ibuanyidandan as a knowledge production approach maintains a stance that a system can only work when the diverse components of which it is constituted serve each other complementarily and authentically as an aspect of its existence [72].
Ibuanyidandan’s epistemological stance contributes to the quality of the research by increasing the inclusiveness of different ethnic groups within the research setting. Inclusiveness entails the selection of major and minor ethnic groups within each indigenous community as illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Illustration of major and minor ethnic groups of indigenous people.
In this context, researching indigenous people with Ibuanyidandan begins with the quest to understand the major and minor ethnic groups, and how they relate, interact and collaborate to identify problems and profound solutions. The ibuanyidandan approach includes the following:
Promotes inclusive participation which reduces bias in the selection of research site and research population. The selection approach recognizes and respects the rights of each ethnic group whether major or minor thereby reducing the submersion of the minor ethnic group into the larger clan.
Promotes the integration of diverse marginalized indigenous groups to build unity, strength, and holistic mutual dependence among all the ethnic groups. This approach to the research site and participant selection promotes an indigenous perspective that states a part makes meaning in the whole, and the whole is a composite of individual units.
The indispensability of complementation in indigenous people’s relationships in the selection of research site and size to ensure no group is “overpowered, submerged, toppled and undermined” [72] in sample selection. This approach is premised on the fact that reality exists and is expressed in whole not in part because undermining a part in a group could alter reality. This approach also promotes harmonious collaboration among indigenous people and researchers. For example, researching health issues using ibuanyidandan as an approach demands that the relationship to a central idea (e.g., doctors) in a cycle consider all doctors that the patients are likely to visit for a consultation. Figure 4 below illustrates demonstrates that inclusiveness in numbers eliminates the imbalance that affects all aspects of population sampling.
Figure 4.
Balancing participant selection.
The analytical approach explores the diversity in the harmonious complementation and progressive transformation in knowledge production and problem-solving instead of muddling up a display of unity and quality in harmony in research interpretation, findings, and report as well as recommendation. The benefit of this approach reduces the exposure of research participants to methodical pressure, dehumanization, and mental suppression [73]. Thus, ibuanyidandan as an indigenous research approach increases self-sacrifice, exhaustiveness, and commitment against selfishness, exclusiveness, and a we-them, mentality in research collaboration [72].
6.3 Storytelling as an indigenous research methodology
This is narrative research, in which the researcher uses a story(ies) in the collection of qualitative data. The basic assumption is that in narrative research, there must be a storyteller, an individual (the researcher) or a group of individuals (the audience including the researcher) who listens and helps in the identification of important events that may further enable a proper understanding of the influence of the problem in the story under study. Storytelling research is a theoretical structure that guides the process of collecting and analyzing data about activities that is important to the storyteller and the viewers. The storytelling is carried out in any environment the storyteller deemed as natural with limited distraction. The rationale behind the use of the storytelling approach may be premised first because data can be collected from an individual or group of individuals depending on the objective, which helps the researcher to understand the link between the story and the context. Second, is the storytelling-build relationship that helps the people to connect, communicate and interact within their setting. Storytelling can be adapted to any setting. Figure 5 presents the suggested process for the storytelling approach to researching indigenous people.
Figure 5.
The storytelling research approaches.
Figure 5 illustration is an example of the storytelling approach and its interrelated nature. The first rectangular shape shows participants for data collection could be an individual or a group of individuals, the storyteller and the researcher. The second rectangular shape shows that the storytelling takes place in a natural and conducive environment. The third rectangular shape shows the researcher developing storytelling activities by connecting to the storyteller and other people involved. The fourth rectangular shape shows that the data can be collected with a series of questions, one question such as using interviews. The fifth rectangular shape shows that data collected be transcribed, coded, categorized and interpreted based on the research objective, and epistemologies of the research communities. The sixth rectangular shape shows that the interpreted data should be discussed with implications for further studies and conclusions.
7. Human rights framework relevant to researching indigenous populations
The human rights framework ensures the fundamental rights of an individual and collective group sacred cultural and spiritual resources, life and security, language and cultural identity, self-governance, participation, development, economic and social rights, and resources and knowledge are maintained and protected (9.1). Researching the indigenous population without appropriate information on human rights principles could raise historical issues of abuse; unfair research practices; looting of cultural knowledge, artifacts, and even bodies and genetic material; anthropological recasting of histories, and a situation where the community members become objects to be studied and the knowledge produced fails to reflect indigenous values [50, 74, 75]. The historical issue can replay the picture of hate, disrespect, and misrepresentations of indigenous people’s existence. The human rights framework provides guiding principles in research practices as follows.
7.1 Recognize and respect indigenous people’s rights as an individual and a collective group
The human rights act requires that indigenous people be recognized and respected as individuals and a collective group with the right to freedom of thought within their diverse ethnic group. Indigenous peoples’ existence within ethnic groups is characterized as major and minor because of self-identification awareness. Self-identification defines group consciousness, a desire to protect ancestral land, a sense of solidarity against historical injustices, and struggles to preserve group existence within indigenous populations [76]. Scholars and practitioners should adopt research designs and methods that protect, affirms and preserve the individuality and collective nature of indigenous people.
7.2 Recognize and respect indigenous people’s rights to their sacred cultural and spiritual resources
Indigenous people have sacred land reserved for ancestral worship or other spiritual activities. Indigenous people regard actions that abuse these lands and spiritual resources as disrespect for their ancestral position. Researchers should obtain appropriate rites of passage for sacred places, which is often a challenge to modern African scholars and practitioners. Many modern Africans describe those who engage in indigenous practices and rituals as a fetish [38]. Researchers with modern perspectives about indigenous people should be sensitive because their insensitivity can produce disrespectful and harmful effects on their person. The display of disrespect to sacred resources and traditional customs is perceived as an abomination to spiritual rights and could endanger the researcher.
Researchers should be sensitive to the differences and similarities between the indigenous setting and the effects on the research output. Sensitivity is about the degree of risk high, middle, or low involved in researching a particular problem. Insensitivity deals with undermining the degree of risk a phenomena understudy can pose to indigenous people or researchers. For instance, researching spiritual rituals for passage to manhood may compel the researcher to be initiated into the cult group to understand the various processes. This initiation forces indigenous people to reveal forbidden information, impinging on their cultural rights (Table 4).
Activity 1: Sacred cultural and spiritual identity: Peter Peter is 54 years old. A research scholar in Nigeria tertiary education and has been an employee for the past twenty years. Peter has developed a new research interest in indigenous people and indigenous settings. Peter is a Christian and views traditional practices such as sacred land and spiritual practices as a fetish. Peter views reverence to ancestors as worshipping the dead and evil because he failed to differentiate between reverence and worship. In reverence, indigenous people display deep admiration and respect because ancestors are the closest connection to the spiritual realm governed by divine beings. In worship, reverence is concerning a divine being or supernatural powers. Peter’s dilemma is how to engage indigenous people without bias toward the sacred places and cultural views on ancestors and other spiritual rules. Peter’s dilemma increased the awareness of the forbidden objects such as cameras, recording equipment, and shoes in entering the sacred land. Peter is contemplating how to engage indigenous people without violating his religious rights. Activity 1: Sacred cultural and spiritual
Reflect on Peter’s dilemma, place yourself in his position, were you in a situation where you must compromise your religious rights based on researching a population.
What were your thoughts?
What was your feeling?
What action came to your thoughts?
How would the actions in your thoughts affect your religious rights and the rights of indigenous people?
Think of an incident anywhere you experienced a dilemma on how to research indigenous people or indigenous settings.
Evaluate what you think is appropriate for you considering your new interest in indigenous people.
Considering your passion for researching indigenous, what are four examples of how you would change your attitude or behavior toward indigenous people’s right to sacred and spiritual land?
Question activity 1: Sacred cultural and religious Reflect on Peter’s dilemma, and place yourself in his new interest in researching indigenous people.
What process would you use to ensure that the indigenous people’s human right is recognized and respected?
Would you as a researcher comprise your religion at the expense of your research interest?
Would you as a researcher avoid research areas that question your ability to recognize and respect the rights of indigenous people to maintain, develop and protect their sacred resources and spiritual practices?
Table 4.
Case study and activities.
7.3 Respect and recognize the ethical rights of indigenous people
Research ethics define the standard of practice in researching indigenous people to ensure their fundamental rights. Informed consent is an essential part of ethics because it is a written agreement with detailed information about the aims and risk level with principles of integrity and value for indigenous people. Integrity and values advance openness in disclosing the objectives, approaches, and benefits to the researcher, institutions, and the community. Research integrity and values are vital because the indigenous setting is about relationship building and accountability characterized by trust and loyalty. Accountability in studying indigenous people deals with accepting responsibility for mistakes and unbending loyalty to signed informed consent (Table 5).
Activity 2: Research ethics: Princess Princess, a 36-year-old in one of the notable first-generation public universities, is an emerging researcher who has issues with risk disclosure on the level of risk in the research activity to the indigenous people and self. Princess is willing to partake in any cultural activities for information gathering. Princess did not disclose her true intention in obtaining information about the secret cultural rituals is to test the validity of the myths with western epistemologies. Princess argued that she does not need to disclose all her intentions. Activity 2.1: Research ethics
Reflect on the ethical problems Princess will face during and after collecting data.
What were your thoughts about Princess approaching indigenous people with hidden intentions?
What ethical principles would affect her approaches to data analysis and reporting?
Considering Princess is an emerging researcher, what ethical principle does she need to understand and apply in working with indigenous people?
Questions Activity 2: Truly informed consent
What will be the ethical issues to the integrity and value of the quality of the information obtained with hidden intention if indigenous people dictate deceit?
How can Princess consider the rights of indigenous people in her research design and methods without ethical problems?
Table 5.
Case study activities and questions.
7.4 Recognize and respect indigenous people’s language and cultural identity
The indigenous people have the right to engage in research activities that revive, grow and improve their language and cultural identity. The scholars and practitioners should ensure that the research methodology reproduces a diversity of cultures, traditions and languages. The scholars should understand the intricacies of cultural identity among indigenous people to reduce discrimination, marginalization and bias in participant selection.
7.5 Recognize and respect indigenous people’s rights to protect their resources and knowledge
Researchers should avoid designs and methods that negatively affect the manifestations of cultural, intellectual, religious, and spiritual property. Indigenous people have the right to protect their traditional knowledge or instinctual property by preventing or refusing researchers to study a particular area or topic. Indigenous people have the right to determine the level of information they should provide to the researcher. Researchers should seek proper access from significant others before conducting studies in excluded areas. Researchers should enter into a contractual agreement on the extent they will disclose any information during and after research [publications].
7.6 Recognize and respect indigenous people’s interaction and relationships
The indigenous people’s relationships and interaction patterns extend beyond the selection of appropriate participants. Indigenous people have been aware of the importance of interaction and communication, which hinge on recognizing and respecting cultural, religious, and traditional values. Respect is reciprocal among indigenous people. Researchers should identify and understand who takes the lead in determining the direction of the interaction, communication, and information sharing concerning the phenomenon understudy.
8. Competency for researching the indigenous population in contemporary times
Indigenous people experience challenges as they strive to maintain, develop, and protect cultural and traditional lifestyles [77]. Researching indigenous people demands the commitments and skills of scholars and practitioners for cultural intelligence for cultural respect, harmonious collaboration, and reciprocal relationships with a focus on emotional intelligence. Thus, scholars and practitioners researching indigenous people in contemporary times need competencies such as cultural, spiritual, and emotional intelligence to navigate the frontiers of researching the indigenous population. Figure 6 illustrated the essential competency the researching indigenous people.
Figure 6.
Competency for the research on indigenous people.
8.1 Cultural intelligence
Cultural intelligence is the ability to adapt, interact and relate with people from different cultural settings [78] and recognize and respect their values and practices. The ability to be aware of, understand and apply cultural competence to everyday decisions [79]. Scholars and practitioners should:
Examine personal cultural knowledge and the ability to adapt to behaviors characterized by cultural values and practices as the researcher relates, and interacts with indigenous people in the research process;
Examine the influence of personal beliefs and bias on the ability to adapt to indigenous culture;
Examine individual abilities in handling prejudices, strengths and weaknesses in researching indigenous people;
Recognize personal needs for training as a scholar and practitioner with an interest in indigenous people.
Comment: Scholars and practitioners should attend workshops, seminars and short courses to acquire cultural knowledge related to indigenous people.
8.2 Emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and manage personal emotions and emotions expressed by other people [80]. Experienced emotions are handled with self-awareness [knowledge of personal strength and weakness in responding to emotional events]; self-management [skill to handle experienced pressuring emotions]; social awareness [knowledge of emotions expressed by other people and how these emotions influence the activities within the social environment] and relationships management [ability to communicate, relate and interact with other people within their environment] [1].
Assess self-awareness, social-awareness self-management and self-management to ensure the ability to navigate the challenges of the research environment;
Assess ability to communicate, interact and have relationships responsively with indigenous people with cultural values of indigenous people;
Assess knowledge of emotions of social environment triggers and management practices to ensure adaptability;
Assess personal and social–emotional strengths and weaknesses to identify needs for training.
Comment: Scholars and practitioners should identify the domain of weakness and strength, and leverage it with workshops and seminars or short courses.
8.3 Spiritual intelligence
Spiritual intelligence is “the ability to construct meaning through intuitively seeing interconnectedness between life-world experience and the inner spheres of the individual psyche” ([81], p. 54). Spiritual intelligence enables a researcher to understand the way human being relevance the supernatural beings deeply rooted in culture [82]. Spiritual intelligence contributed to the ability to identify and understand the spiritual beliefs, values, and ritual practices of the indigenous people understudy. The spiritual intelligence will help the researchers to develop deep knowledge of the indigenous religious beliefs and practices, and adopt appropriate attitudes vital in researching the indigenous population.
Scholars and practitioners need support structures
identify a belief bias in indigenous peoples’ spirituality;
examine the biases and influence research;
examine the risks and impact on indigenous people and scholars and practitioners;
identify major spiritual activity days, festivals and resources and reschedule research activities outside the events or days.
Comment: Scholars and practitioners should obtain information about the spiritual values and practices of the indigenous people to avoid conflicts of interest.
Cultural intelligence, emotional intelligence and spiritual intelligence have important roles to play in the management of behaviors or attitudes of scholars and practitioners. These skills are displayed in the communication, interaction and relationship while researching indigenous people in an indigenous setting.
This chapter attempted to address the concepts vital in researching indigenous people in contemporary times. The terms like indigenous knowledge, epistemologies, philosophies, cultural values and practice that inform perceptions of realities were discussed and their place in research on indigenous people was presented. The chapter considered the research methodology and paradigm suitable for researching African indigenous people. The chapter contained a few activities to create a better understanding of the issue under discussion.
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Written By
Eucharia Chinwe Igbafe
Submitted: August 11th, 2022Reviewed: September 1st, 2022Published: March 9th, 2023
Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
