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Inventoried Yeast Species in Algeria

Written By

Abderrahmane Benkhalifa

Submitted: August 31st, 2022 Reviewed: December 23rd, 2022 Published: February 21st, 2023

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.109694

Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2023 IntechOpen
Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2023 Authored by Luis Jesús Villarreal-Gómez

From the Annual Volume

Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2023 [Working Title]

Dr. Luis Jesús Villarreal-Gómez

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Abstract

In Algeria, the study of yeasts remained marginalized for a long time. One of the supposed causes would be the reduction of examples in the school system. In medicine, species are identified because of their pathogenicity. But in food production and other fields, yeasts are mentioned as quantification in the quality-control process as well as molds. In addition to homemade breads, traditions of fermentation involving yeasts are the process of other local products, such as dairy products, vinegars, beverages, and authentic cheeses. Yeasts affect fruits and plants but also increase yields and protect species from other pathogenic microorganisms. Some conscious researchers have looked into the prospecting of yeast showing their properties and evaluating their interest, adopting biotechnology approaches, and covering several environments. 131 taxa are listed in this first compilation with 27 species in human health, 30 in animal health, 27 from dairy products, 24 taxa isolated from soils, 41 from agricultural products, and 17 concerned environmental purposes. Biotechnologies concern 44 taxa in varied topics of biomass, ethanol, vinegar, enzymes, and esters. Sixteen selected natural products inhibit 14 yeast species. Many isolated strains are promising in agriculture, agri-food, and biotechnologies and present new economic prospects. The idea of national depository is proposed.

Keywords

  • yeasts
  • biodiversity
  • Algeria
  • new economies
  • zymology

1. Introduction

Inventory of yeasts went from around 500 species in the mid-1980s to over 1500 species in 2010–2011 [1]. Biosystematics approaches leave many taxa in the midst of perpetual updating of their phylogenetic affiliations. Almost all species are hectic in the panoply of appellations. Moreover, interest in yeasts has widened considerably, since their development has opened up new horizons in various biotechnological uses, including enzymes and biofuels [2, 3]. The inventory of yeasts and their outlets is enriched each year with new species and new applications. Specialists know that only a tiny part is discovered [4]. In Algeria, the yeast inventory has not yet been established. We do not pretend to do it in a such rapid trial, but we try to perfect our first issue [5]. Within the national reports implementing the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), the inventory of mushrooms needs serious updating. That of yeasts is totally neglected because it is included within fungi and they stay much less explored. Fungi and yeast remain limited in view of the attractiveness of aromatic and edible plants or those mentioned in traditional care, which are potentially targeted for their beneficial impact on human health. But looking at cultural heritage, homemade bread, vinegar, and drinks are very rich in know-how. Local peoples conserve the use of fermented foods [6], vinegar [7], and varied dairy products [8, 9, 10, 11]. In addition to home beard, Matmoura is an exceptional preservation mode of fermented wheat [12]. It is used to prepare a famous couscous called Hamoum, whose probiotic property has been proven [13].

We are undertaking a review here to highlight the richness and interest of yeasts in order to align them with the rest of the inventories of fauna, flora, and other micro-organisms. We cover those of human and animal infections and those identified in research work devoted to food processes and fermented products as well as environmental studies. We seek to promote identified taxa or isolated strains within national research studies. It demonstrates the links between ancestral practices, interesting local products from traditions, and their socioeconomic issues. In parallel, we focus on the educational strategy to upgrade the standardization of taxa and revitalize their management as real segments of biodiversity at the service of the economy.

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2. Methodology

To enrich the list of inventoried yeast species in Algeria, we spontaneously explored scholar literatures using Research gate and Google Scholar providing references in varied disciplines. They let quick access to what Algerians publish because they are the first concerned with this awareness documentation. Keywords were; yeast, fermentation, fermented foods, enzyme production, selected yeast strains... We searched through free academic search engines; PubMed, Isidor Pascal-Archives, and Agritrop. To complete local documents, such as theses and masters, we used the Algerian theses website (https://www.theses-algerie.com/), which is an aggregator portal of national universities and research institutions. We try to constitute a common list with actual taxonomic names but also with respect to those used by authors. Thus, we mentioned in some case synonyms, or the link between anamorphic and teleomorph forms. To verify favorite appellations, we used the taxonomic browser of the NCBI or the Mycobank database web site.

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3. Yeasts between anthropological practices and modern economy

In addition to bread and vinegar, fundamental work is essential to enlighten the choice between traditions and modernity. There are major stakes in terms of impact on health and economy. This leads us to look into the inventory of taxa or even strains linked to the development of traditional leavens or the manufacture of baker’s yeast in the face of the thorny problem of its importation.

3.1 Baker’s yeast import

According to the National News Agency [14], requirement of baker’s yeast is around 150,000 tons and we import over 100 million tons. Available data are those reported by the World Bank [15]. Top exporters to Algeria are presented in Table 1. The decrease observed during 2019 and 2020 is recovered in 2021 with an increase in the total imported rate. Top six countries export to Algeria less of 50,000 tons what donot corroborate with media divulgation.

(1) Worldbank Active exports2018201920202021
Trade value (1000 US$)Quantity (Kg)Trade value (1000 US$)Quantity (Kg)Trade value (1000 US$)Quantity (Kg)Trade value (1000 US$)Quantity (Kg)
Turkey20,693,219,604,79016,075.347,505,80016,966.668,333,85023,173.3411,247,600
Russian Federation12,110,006,410,43012,478.196,492,6305199.702,949,32010,290.505,039,540
Egypt, Arab Rep.999,24459,486108.0745,000574.17194,0957107.632,117,280
China333,39346,2502451.161,414,3005861.583,092,9802159.841,100,810
Morocco100,1148,600222.83106,716805.50411,8851100.87516,760
European Union312,99142,240786.37351,831330.21148,602657.16304,777
Ukraine——251,48124,740————
Tunisia65,8835,00021,1310,000————
Iran, Islamic Rep.136,0068,000——————
Canada111,9664,800——————
(2) Customs Reports77,420,0082,390,0068,580,00

Table 1.

Top yeast exporters to Algeria (2018–2021) [15] compared to trade value from national customs reports [16].

From the National Customs reports, data concerning the quantity are not available in the consulted references [16]. Trade values are higher due to the grouping under reported item yeasts with other micro-organisms and baking powders. Public opinion is surprised that national production does not meet our industrial and domestic needs. Yet, giant infrastructures are established in Algeria, including that of Bechegouf in Guelma which should produce 30% of the national need [17].

3.2 Homemade sourdough and traditional breading

Through social media, there are more initiatives to promote homemade sourdough. Thus have benefited volunteers whose make efforts in showing incredible fantasies of traditions in bread making as well as other subjects of ancestral food process [18]. Sometimes, it is accepted to improve understanding and adherence with time respect and temperature control as the use of cold storage equipment. One of the YouTube descriptions is given by Y. Sellam-Benlemaalem, an agronomist basically. Having worked as a teacher of ecology for a long time, she become a recognized chef for defending local culinary traditions while accepting modernity. In her description of sourdough, she reminds us of a rare process of preserving sourdough by drying it after flattening and cutting it into thin slices, to be preserved for several years. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lu_FRmzBe-M&t=256s

Rural families prepare their own sourdough. This practice has been resumed in particular during recent years of the spread of COVID-19. Vernacular names are “Khemira Beldya” homemade sourdough; “Khemirat Dar,” housemade sourdough; “Khemira Mahaliyah”: local sourdough; “Khemira Arbiyah” Arabic Sourdough. All indicate traditional sourdough despite the fact that this practice oscillates, jealously, between maintenance and abandonment among young people and those in urban areas, particularly [19]. Homemade sourdough can be obtained automatically by soaking and emitting whole wheat flour from wheat and barley or by adding diverse sources of inoculum (Annexe I) like dates, figs, beans, watermelon juice, vinegar, whey, and curdled milk as well as fruits, leaves, and stems of some spontaneous plants, which are generally not toxic or have harmful effects such like sorrel plants Rumex bucephalophorus or Rumex acetosa. These species are widespread in rainy regions throughout North Africa and are known for their sour taste. This is the reason why it is called in Arabic “Hammeida or Hommaydha” meaning acid taste. Another originality concerns sourdough from beans inoculation, which is used in particular in Tlemcen and Oran (Western Algeria), to prepare remarkable rich soup. Unfortunately, this recipe was replaced with the use of manufactured yeast and lemon juice [20]. Actually, this tradition collapses day after day.

Sourdough starter still simple and easy to prepare—you need water and flour according to your preference. The spontaneous bacterial and yeast present in the air or that exist in the flour, especially wholemeal, will do the rest (Figure 1). If not, we add to it inoculum showed before but without manufactured yeast.

Figure 1.

Sourdoughs obtained using (a) hard wheat flour (left) (b) hard wheat, soft wheat and barley flours (right).

Under an optical microscope, the traditional sourdough shows different kind of cellular forms, oval and ovoid, and a few crescent shapes, lenticels (Figure 2). Smaller cylindrical shapes with interconnected spheroids in the form of rosaries are likely bacterial species. It is delicate to examine sourdough, but with dilution, we do not consider starch granules. Wild Saccharomyces cells can be with different diameters ranging from single to double. Sourdough is fermented by wild strains of yeast and bacteria spontaneously. Saccharomyces cerevisiae constitutes the species responsible for sourdough processing. It is shown that sourdough strains, which are diploid, have high copy number of genes able to use maltose, whereas industrial bakery strains are tetraploid with a rapid fermentation onset and are more efficient in CO2 production [20]. This suggests an interest in the selection of spontaneous strains from an industry-oriented performance evaluation perspective.

Figure 2.

Morphology of spontaneous cells observed from sourdough under a Carl Zeiss Axiostar microscope × 1000.

In El-Oued (South-eastern Algeria) the sourdough is dried due to the favorable drying conditions in the Sahara. It is then stored in powder form like commercial yeast (Figure 3). This technique has become teached in recent years in the vocational training institute. The gritty brownish color is due to the use of dates in the sourdough flour mixture.

Figure 3.

Powder sourdough obtained from local wheat flour mixed with dates (prepared by Ali Menai at the professional training Institute in El-Oued, Algeria).

3.3 Traditional vinegar

In Algeria, vinegar is a particular case of fermentation because it is obtained from diversified sources of fruits, such as dates, apple and sometimes from pomegranate (Figures 4 and 5). The new one is obtained from the Indian fig (known as prickly pear), the fruit of Opuntia ficus-indica. Between homemade vinegars, or theses proposed by companies and chemical vinegars, there are choices to be favored. In the case of the date vinegar, the fruit biomass is added with a few of other ingredients (wheat seeds, barley seeds, harmel or wild rue seeds, coriander seeds, a pinch of salt and a pinch of chili, and also two iron nails). Then, it is emerged in double quantity of water and maintained in preservation within 40–45 days [7]. During this time is done the conversion of sugar into alcohol and with the presence of acetic bacteria it transform by oxidization into vinegar, mainly with a concentration of acetic acid and distinct flavors due to the fruit parameters and the presence of other acids (malic acid in case of apple). In the case of dates, in small quantities, acetic acid, butandiol, propanone [21], amino acids, vitamins, and formic acid are also present [7]. During meals, the consumption of vinegar gives a feeling of fullness and thus limits the quantities of food consumed or exaggerated. Vinegar has many properties with positive health impacts. It is reported that vinegar: 1) regulates blood sugar by improving insulin secretion, 2) curbs obesity by suppressing fats accumulation, 3) could increase HDL-cholesterol and diminishes LDL-cholesterol levels, and 4) inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis in human cancer cells [22]. In traditional care, vinegar reduces fevers essentially. According to an ethnological survey of families in Ghardaia, more than 20 cases of date vinegar virtues are registered [23]. Like, in sourdough, we should focus also very carefully on the type of yeast that we should choose among the spontaneous yeasts, which could be observed in the traditional way or others among the strains showing better transformation of sugar into alcohol. Recently, it is demonstrated that a selected Kasachstania unispora strain showed performance in sourdough environments compared with commercial S. ceverisiae, in particular, under stress condition as acetic acid concentration, ethanol, or salinity [24].

Figure 4.

Left to right: Vinegar from apple (a), dates (b,c), and prickly pear (d).

3.4 Dairy products

The government gives specific importance to milk importation in regard to the consumption needs of more than 1500 MUS$ in 2020 (Table 2). This represents 15–20% of importation fees. Cheese and similar takes more than 7–8% of dairy products (Figure 6).

Trade Value (1000 US$)
All milk and dairy products201820192020
1,401,0901,245,9101,549,740
Grated or powdered cheese and curds107,0307,64%91,6907,36%119,8507,73%

Table 2.

Trade values of imported milk and dairy products in Algeria (2018–2020) [16].

Algerian milk production is ensured by cows, sheep, goats, and a small part by camels. Cow’s milk constitutes the highest share of production with more than 71% but due to the need for food, the production of cow’s milk is decreasing (Figure 5). That of sheep and goats is maintained to ensure a little less than the third. Camel milk hardly exceeds 15,000 tons, but it remains essential to Bedouins in arid and Saharan regions. The total quantities expressed in tones are much lower than what is requested by a population that will reach 50 million inhabitants in the next few years. With 3.3 million tons per year, the maximum quota is less than 2 liters per person per week. Thus, we have to review the mode of consumption. Milk transformation to other products offers an economic best consumption. Fermentation is one of the success keys. Sure, there is a complexity between the import, supported by the government, and the development of local breeding. Sustained imports may not remain the ideal solution at all times. In both urban and rural areas, residents need to practice milk preservation and milk processing to prolong their nutritional components and balance their savings.

Figure 5.

Vinegar manufacturing in El-Oued (Algeria) with a capacity of 3000 L.

Figure 6.

Production of milk in tons in Algeria 2016–2020 (source FAO stat).

Like humans, animal health is essential. The mastitis is given as a prior problem. Dairy products are fragile and face contaminations risk. Safe row milk or fermented milk depends on respect of traditional processing like in control of modern cheeses. Cow’s milk is essential to ensure the large needs but it decreases as the food load becomes more and more expensive. Algeria is mainly affected by drought and must do its utmost to fight against desertification. But, there are many types of waste that require transformation. Biomass is geared toward animal feed or other needs like energy. In addition to local knowledge, yeast should help us achieve attended goals of milk production. There are at least 20 dairy products (Annexe II). The richness of vocabulary proves how people depend on dairy products [8, 10, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Named products have been repeatedly described in various works but they havenot been developed yet. We are proud of local products as nostalgia but we still have to deepen their social and economic characteristics to guarantee the legacy on a healthy and profitable basis. Even large-scale, family-based milk producers extract butter to be consumed or processed into cooked butter called Smen/Dhan [8, 10, 25, 26]. Those are the two products extracted from milk as lipid components, and they represent a heritage food tradition. Indication of non-identified species in the case of Smen from camel milk in western regions, Bechar, Moghrar, Ain Sefra, and Saida [26] need to make attention in analyzing dairy products more carefully. Even if it was found to contain a slight percentage of yeast (2.08–3.88 cu ft./g) despite the morphological description of the described isolates, it was not possible to identify them. This suggests to analyzed yeasts archive and products one by one in the future.

The churning of milk also allows the production of L’Ben and in a quantity that often exceeds the need for daily consumption of families. It is therefore sold if not transformed in turn into several modes of fresh or dry cheese products according to the knowledge and know-how of the populations. The consumption of curdled milk and L’Ben, the compound obtained after churning, is very famous in Algeria as dairy products. L’Ben is usually flavored with Phoenician Juniper (Juniperus phoenicea) dry powder (Figure 7a). Next are the traditional cheese-making methods even in competition with the adoption of modern cheese techniques, which constitute a regional emblem not dissociated from tradition. Jben is so popular (Figure 7b) but the case of Jben Al-Gafs is endemic to the Boussaada district and has a real maturity during 2 weeks (Figure 8a and b).

Figure 7.

Ancestral traditional dairy products: Left to right; (a). L’Ben sprinkled with Phoenician Juniper, (b). Jben presented on fig leaf.

Figure 8.

A, b. Jben Al-Gafs, showing ripening effect as real authentic cheese from Bousâada, Algeria (photo is imported from the website vitaminedz.com).

3.5 Fermented wheat

There is an interesting case related to ancestral food security is the technique of preserving wheat underground. Matmoura is a traditional method of preservation observed in many places in North Africa, even in Egypt. It consists in placing the wheat production crop underground, which is managed differently due to the nature of the soil and the need of the families. The ground is leveled up next to the fields and the sides and bottom of the pit are covered with straw. Wheat crop is stored in the pit for several years. Because of the moisture and some water leakage, the sides ferment only. During the re-extraction of the wheat for use, the fermented dark grains are separated by themselves and used to prepare a special couscous known as Hamoum because of its dark color. This technique is still practiced in north-center and north-western Algeria, but it has become a rare product. Therefore, revealing its health secrets [12, 13, 37] and distinctive taste preoccupies some researchers and those interested in re-considering it as a cultural heritage. The subject of this fermented wheat is an authentic case of fermented food which needs deep research in microorganism identification as well as yeast. First exploration showed fourth interesting species by decreasing numeric importance on occurring culture mediums: Saccharomyces pastorianus (50%), Saccharomyces boulardii (39%), Schizosaccharomyces pombe (5%), and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (1%) [38]. This step will encourage prospecting other fermented foods and beverages and allow registering all places where Matrmoura was used as a conservation technique.

3.6 Other ethnobiological cases

We have not verified ethnological practices where yeasts are used in the care or in treatment of diseases, but in the Gourara region in the Algerian Sahara, there is a particular practice where the itching of the hands and the symptoms of fungal attacks are treated by dipping the patient’s hands several times into the traditional poultry trough. This traditional material is made of pottery. It is assumed that in such a process there is probably the effect of particular yeasts but this hypothesis remains to be explored by survey in those regions where the same practice is done and try to isolate strains it should exist.

We note from some research works the use of yeast as fortifying in animal feed, in particular, dairy cows using Saccharomyces cerevisiae to improve milk production [39, 40, 41]. So far we cannot consider this as community adoption, but it will be in the future due to the increasing need and cost of feed. Also, because an experiment is to be done with farmers or breeders and considering the imports of many brands, it is clear that using yeast as an animal feed supplement will be a common practice. The first observation is the negligence in guiding veterinarians to adopt species other than S. cerevisiae the ones that should be valued as waste and be more beneficial to breeders. Candida utilis would be interesting to improve the yield of the degradation of cellulose of vegetable waste and to offer in addition to the energy a pre-digested animal feed. It would be a shame to not favorite the production of yeasts and choose its easier and direct use in animal feeding, knowing that it is imported. The production trials of S. cerevisiae are in favor of the valorization of date waste over molasses, thus recovering large quantities of date waste. In this way, we would promote the use of common dates and improve the productivity of biomass.

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4. Yeasts in the school program and training strategy

Yeasts are mentioned first in the medium cycle under the theme of fermentation. The strategy requires to be reviewed in its finality because objectives are not clearly specified even less the link between the disciplinary approaches and the means of implementation. The teaching of fermentation should not be reduced to the sole case of bread or baker’s yeast. It should be extended to its practical vocation linked at least to diversified and rich traditions of foods, vinegar, and dairy products. We should start with healthy examples at this stage and encourage the discovery of a very interesting living world. The current textbook should push learners to make more practical efforts. We believe, this is where the curiosity flaws are etched in the minds of future generations. At the university, the subject of yeasts is treated in several fields, including Cytology, Botany, Microbiology, and Biotechnology. In general, the star remains the baker’s yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, from school levels to university and that during more than 150 years. Ultrastructure is described only to confirm the eukaryotic cell model without worrying too much about cell’s composition or physiology. In some applied microbiological evaluation, Candida albicans constitutes the second example. Fortunately, in medical sciences and parasitology, the clinical needs cover several taxa: Candida albicans, C. tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis, C. Krusie, C. glabrata, Naganichia alba, Sporothrix schenckii and sometime others. Obviously, mastering epidemiology has an evident impact on the economy regarding the risk of mortality, duration of patient hospitalization, and cost of care conditions.

We have an interest to introduce the subject of yeasts as diversified living organisms. After testing this approach in cytology, as a fundamental course of graduation, we consider this as a crucial opportunity not to be overlooked in order to initiate learners to consider the case of yeasts like any other category of cells. Since the main objective is to essentially distinguish the cellular criteria of living organisms, we have proposed the adoption of the following flowchart (Figure 9) With a participatory approach based on the principle of biodiversity, we encourage learners to choose for each category their own examples of the previous basic culture as a prerequisite and also of their complementary curiosity according to extra muros efforts. We gain the advantage of quickly initiating young learners and even before university to channel their school culture to recognize cellular trains and thus create the need to prepare the ground for any learning of biosystematics. For yeasts, we solve from the first step their attachment to fungi and especially their complication of sometimes overlapping unicellular eukaryotes and multi-cellular eukaryotes.

Figure 9.

Diagram of living organisms.

The curiosity of the young learners leads to favoring the choice of a few remarkable and captive criteria which distinguish yeasts from other organisms. There are three recent ones that should not be overlooked. That of the mode of division in budding or in fission without forgetting the recent discovery of the mixed mode by budding and fission at the same time and also the mode of star budding concerning the studied species [42]. The second consist of showing yeast diversity in their shape forms [4] and not focalize on the ovoid of elongated ones only. The third peculiarity is that of Ergosterol as a lipid compound in yeast membrane instead of cholesterol as in animal cells and phytosterols in plants. The rest of the sensitivity comes from the role to be discovered for each species and also from the possibilities of its appropriate culture to anticipate this or that biochemical or biotechnological exploitation.

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5. Yeast inventories in Algerian research studies

Historically, Algeria is mentioned as the soil origin of type stain CBS 277 of Pseudosaccharomyces africanus isolated from a locality named Akbari, cited in Mycobank database and other [43]. Currently, the preferred name is Hanseniaspora vineae (Syn. Kloeckera Africana). The interest of this species concerns the increasing of flavor complexity with neutral grape varieties. Similar strain of this species was isolated in Japan and showed capacity in improving bread flavor [44]. Another strain of Hanseniaspora osmophila (Kloeckera Africana) was deposed in the UK, National Collection of Yeast Cultures in April 1920 and reported isolated from the previous habitat (Soil Akbari, Algeria) as mentioned under the number NCYC 26 [45]. Likewise, under the original epithet Kloeckera Africana, the strain DBVPG 6792 was deposed in 1993 in the Yeasts Collection (DBVPG) of the Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale of the Universita’ di Perugia, Italy [46].

In The Algerian Annals of Agronomy, Bremond E. tested the fermentation of mature bananas coming from Guinea in West Africa and unvaluable for the consumption to produce alcohol for the military service [47]. Regarding the purpose, active sourdough was used without the precision of yeast or any other microorganism species. At that time, they suggested that Algiers Pasteur Institute, as a professional contribution, would conserve and purify the purity of the selected strains. From that, we retain two important lessons; archive of yeast prospections will be done correctly. Any work has real importance with a clear impact on application in wine processing.

Identification of yeasts as species first concerned medical purposes to control pathogens. In parallel but more fragmented come some works confirming the role of yeasts in fermented foods or drinks. Those who focus on discovering them in environments or describing their benefits are much more recent.

5.1 Yeasts within human health

Human fungal infections including those caused by yeast and yeast-like fungi constitute a serious burden in Algeria [48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57]. At least 27 taxa are identified in care controls. Often in topic of medicine research, we observe in first Candida species with sometimes resistance phenomena to treatments [48, 54]. Inventoried species are: Aureobasidium melanogenum (Aureobasidium pullulans var. melanogenum), C. albicans,

Corynebacterium auris, C. dubliniensis, Candida famata, C. glabrata (syn. Torulopsis glabrata), C. Kefyr, C. Krusie, Candida lusitaniae (Syn. Clavispora lusitaniae), C. orthopsilosis, C. parapsilosis, C. rugosa, C. tropicalis, Candida zeylanoides, Clavispora lusitaniae (Teleomorph of Candida lusitaniae) Cr. gattii, Cr. neoformans var. grubii, Cr. neoformans var. neoformans, Cr. neoformans, Lodderomyces elongiporous (related to sex. Form of Candida parapsilosis), Meyerozyma elongisporous, Naganishia albida (Cryptococcus albidus var. albidus), Naganishia liquefaciens, Pichia kudriavzevii (Telomorph of Candida krusei), Prototheca wickerhamii, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Trichosporon sp.

This later was observed with tenia petis infection [49, 50]. Saccharomyces ceverivisiae was isolated from infant fees and showed that are safe that can be considered as probiotic [54] whereas C. parapsilosis and C. albicans have potential inhibitor effects on referential strains of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Cr. gattii [55] and C. auris [56] are reported for the first time in Algeria. In this later work, deep identification separated the subspecies level of Cr. neoformans into its two varieties Cr. neoformans var. grubii and Cr. neoformans var. neoformans. Only one case mentioned a denture contaminated by C. albicans [57], the ex vivo decontamination of this yeast-colonized denture was realized by iodine-thiocyanate.

The urban environment is considered as a potential risk of contamination by the inhalation of fungi spores, pigeon droppings, trees, and soils are surveyed some time in urban areas and around hospitals. Candida sp., C. albidus, C. laurantii, Cryptococcus neoformans, Rhodotorula sp., Saccharomyces sp., S. cerevisiae, and Trichosporon sp. are reported from Algiers the capital [55]. Also, in Annaba and from pigeon droppings, 6 isolated species were identified; Cryptococcus albidus and Cryptococcus diffluens (for the first time) were isolated, which represents an environmental risk for humans [58]. Prospected pigeon’s droppings from Constantine showed C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis, Cr. Terreus, and Cr. uniguttulatus [59].

5.2 Yeasts in animal health

From diagnosed cow cases [60, 61, 62, 63, 64], a total of 30 species have been identified mainly causing mastitis. Goats [7], sheep and camels are certainly affected but no isolates have been identified in the research consulted during the elaboration of this presentation. Species are; C. albicans, C. colliculosa, C. famata, C. glabrata, Candida guilliermondii, C. inconspicua, C. kefyr, C. krusei, Candida lambica, C. lusitaniae (Anamorph of Clavispora lusitaniae), C. parapsilosis, C. pseudotropicalis, C. rugosa, C. tropicalis, C. zeylanoides, Cryptococcus albidus, Cr. laurantii, Cr. Neoformans, Cr. terreus (Syn. Solicoccozyma terrea), Cutaneotrichosporon cutaneum (Syn. Trichosporon cutaneum), Geotrichum capitatum, Metschnikowia pulcherrima (Syn. Torulopsis pulcherrima), Pichia kudriavzevii (Telomorph of Candida krusei), Rhodotorula glutinis, R. rubra, S. cerevisiae, S. fragilis, Trichosporon sp., T. capitatum, and T. fermentans (Syn. to Dipodascus fermentans). With a chance that Pichia kudriavzevii were observed in rare cases for the moment. This species presents a most remarkable resistance to the antifungal agent fluconazole. The essential oils of Origanum floribundum, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Thymus ciliates were tested and shown to be favorable against Candida albicans and can be considered as alternatives in the control of mastitis fungi [62]. Also, essential oils of Cinnamomum cassia (cited as Cinnamomum aromaticum) and Syzygium aromaticum were tested against seven isolated species C. albicans, C. lambica, C. tropicalis, C. zeylanoides, Cryptococcus albidus, Cr. Laurentii, and Rhodotorula glutinis and shown strong effects to be proposed as an alternative solution to face the fungal mastitis risk [63, 64].

5.3 Yeasts from soil and agriculture products

Logically, wine and soil were the past first subject of prospecting yeast, in particular, during colonial period. That was the reason to observe today’s referenced strains, Hanseniaspora osmophila CBS 277 and H. vineae (syn. Kloeckera africana, cited as Pseudosaccharomyces africanus) and in gene banks [43, 45, 46]. Hanseniaspora opuntiae x pseudoguilliermondii DBVPG 5828 was isolated from Soil close to plum tree and deposited as a reference strain in 2010 [65]. Recently, 20 other taxa were isolated from soil and agriculture products in varied agriculture areas [66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74]. Isolated taxa are Aureobasidium pullulans, Candida sp., C. glabra, Clavispora lusitaniae, Cryptococcus sp., Cr. aerius (Yeast state of Solicoccozyma aeria), Cr. magnus (Syn. of Filobasidium magnum), Debaryomyces hansenii, Hanseniaspora opuntiae, Hanseniaspora uvarum, Lipomyces sp., Meyerozyma guilliermondii (Teleomorphic form of C. guilliermondii Syn. P. guilliermondii), Phyllophorus anomalia, P. kluyveri, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Saccharomyces sp., S. cerevisiae, Schwanniomyces sp. Ustilago cynodontis, Yarrowia lipolytica.

Selected promising strains are; Schwanniomyces sp. strain LB3 [67] for amylase production, P. kluyveri DBVPG 5826 showing killer activity [70], and A. pullulans for the evaluated activity of its polygalacturonase with admissible application to reduce the cloudiness of fruit juice [72], Compared with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, isolated from soil strains of Debaryomyces hansenii, Meyerozyma guilliermondii, and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa showed the preference for alkaline pH and interesting resistance to salinity and elevated temperature and have a potential of Plant Growth Promoting (PGP) function [69]. Ustilago cynodontis isolated from the Sebkha of Oran (Saline soil) has multi-enzyme activities as lipolytic, proteolytic, and cellulotic [71]. C. glabrata has an interesting & amylase activity [75].

Fruits naturally are a suitable yeast habitat. Grapes and dates are the first prospected fruits. Twelve isolated Species from grapes [76, 77, 78] are: Candida pseudointermedia, C. solani, Hanseniaspora uvarum, Metschnikowia pulcherrima (Syn. Torulopsis pulcherrima), Pichia deserticola, P. fermentans, S. cerevisiae, Starmerella gropengiesseri (cited with basioname: Candida gropengiesseri), Starmerella magnoliae (cited as homotipic basioname Candida magnoliae), Torulaspora delbrueckii, T. microellipsoides (cited as Zygosaccharomyces microellipsoides), T. pretoriensis. From dates, 5 identified species were isolated; S. cerevisiae was isolated to select several adapted strains to produce alcohol or biomass [79, 80], Clavispora lusitaniae, Hanseniaspora uvarum, Kodamaea ohmeri were selected to test the production of Alcohol, flavor and amino acid [80, 81] and Candida apicola was isolated to be targeted as temperature resistant [82]. The natural fermented green Olives contain a least 4 taxa; Candida sp., C. parapsilosis and Saccharomyces sp. and S. cerevisiae [83]. Candida boidinii G5 (KF156789), isolated from spent olive (Chemlal variety), showed lipase activity [84].

Like dates must sugarcane molasses and fig were explored to isolate S. cerevisiae [85]. From other fruits and products, Candida parapsilosis was isolated from melon, Zygosaccharomyces bailii from Gherkin, and Zygosaccharomyces rouxii from honey [81]. To produce &-amylase, Candida guilliermondii (Syn. Pichia guilliermondii) and C. tropicalis were isolated from potatoes [86]. Recently, Aureobasidium pullulans, Rhodotorula diobovata, Vishniacozyma tephrensis were isolated from fruits and beet peels and showed extracellular enzyme synthesis [87].

Wheat seeds were explored to isolate 8 species; Lipomyces kononenkoae, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Schwanniomyces occidentalis (Syn. Debaryomyces occidentalis) [73], Clavispora lusitaniae ABS7 [88], Meyerozyma caribbica, M. guilliermondii, Pichia guilliermondii (Anamophic of M. guilliermondii), Rhodotorula rubra [89]. Fermented wheat conserved within Matrouma as ethnological technique permitted to silotae Saccharomyces boulardii, S. cerevisiae, C. pastorianus, Schizosacchoromyces pombe [38]. The latter is isolated for the first time in Algeria while it could exist in many products as well as those made with seeds or powder millet.

Research works are limited to the examination of efficiency in biomass production in particular to produce S. cerevisiae or oriented to valorize that in bioethanol. Those oriented to biotechnological was stay at the exploration stage and need more significant interest to go up the level of applied fields in industries.

In phytopathology, the case of fungi must be extended to yeasts because they are often associated with molds and yeasts. Yeasts are considered as sources for stopping fungal development. Two new strains, isolated from the Red Sea and identified belonging to the species Candida orthopsilosis and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, showed improvement in wheat growth parameters and its resistance against Fusarium oxysporum, with a complete inhibition of zearalenone production in roots and ears [90]. This indicates an interesting and amazing perspective in testing yeasts against other fusariosis cases. Basically, Metschnikowia pulcherrima is an epiphytic species as others. Nectar and sweet fruits are welcoming to it. This species is must be appreciated for its strong antagonistic activities against pathogenic microorganisms without producing toxic components. Thus, it is used against plant pathogens like in breaking fruit invasion by Botrytis cinerea [91].

5.4 Yeasts in dairy products

Raw milk evaluated in North Western Algeria showed that yeast and fungi were detected in all ewes’ raw milk samples [92]. The investigation of bovine mycotic mastitis in two departments of the northeast showed that 10.17% of the samples were positive [62]. Milk handling could be prior factor causing high yeast and mold loads. Other risk factors are due to the effect of the season and the distance between farm and dairy unit. When septic conditions are ensured we have to look for those spontaneous benefit species, in particular, if dairy products are conserved or transformed. 27 identified species were isolated from dairy products. Y. lipolytica is isolated from all king of milk [81, 93, 94]. From fermented bovine milk 7 identified species are C. tropicalis, Issatchenkia orientalis (Syn. P. Kudriavezii), K. marxianus, Saprochaete suaveolens, Trichosporon coremiiforme, Wickerhamomyces anomalus, Yarrowia lipolytica [93]. The strain L2 (ACKF156787) of the last one species is isolated to evaluate the lipase enzyme in traitment of olive waste [84]. Schizosaccharomyces sp. with similar strain to S. octosporus was isolated from whey [95]. From yogurt, K. fragilis, K. marxianus and a similar strain to Schizosaccharomyces malidevorans were isolated [95]. Cheese contains C. lactis [95] and Geotrichum candidum [94]. From camel milk 16 species were isolated; Issatchenkia orientalis (Syn. Pichia Kudriavezii), Trichosporon coremiiforme, Yarrowia lipolytica [81], C. maris, C. parapsilosis, C. tartarivorans, C. tropicalis, C. zylanoides, C. lusitaniae, K. marxianus, M. Farinosa, P. fermentans, P; galeiformis, manshurica, R. mucilaginosa [96] Candida kefyr was isolated from cow milk, whey [95] and fermented camel milk [97]. Cooked Butter (S’men) from Camel milk showed also the contamination of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and other Saccharomyces sp. [26].

To conserve high volatile value in fermented cow milk (Rayeb), while this term can mean also coagulated milk, 7 species have been isolated [93]. Four selected species S. suaveolens, I. orientalis, K. marxianus, and W. Anomalus produce esters that influence the taste and ensure organoleptic parameters of the dairy product. The double-drying process of interesting yeast such as S. suaveolens, W. Anomalus, deserves to be popularized and taught as a way to innovate or improve traditional processes. Modern cheese ripening is considered an exogenous process but traditional or local as soft or dried can be improved by understanding of the physiological strategy of the species involved. [98] leads with the commercial strain of Geotrichum candidum associated with Penicillium camembertii the choice of the amino acid that would be consumed most efficiently and the short peptides will be targeted. This experience showed clearly the interest to select from local spontaneous G. candidum, which is apparently very rarest. Stay with domesticated strains and remember that we are in the fourth group described previously that of species, basically beneficial but potentially harmful. Special attention is registered to valorise the famous case of Candida kefyr isolated from camel milk or yogurt [95, 97]. Another targeted strain of this species has highest enzyme activity (up to 5000 EU/ml) and highest level of single-cell protein [95]. Other identified taxa in this study were Candida sp. (similar to C. pseudotropicalis), Kluyveromyces fragilis, K. lactis, K. marxianus, Schizosaccharomyces sp. (similar to S. octosporus) and Schizosaccharomyces sp. (similar to S. Malidevorans, syn. of S. pombe). Yarrowia lipolytica is isolated from sheep, goat, and camel milk [93, 96, 97]. Candida kefyr was isolated from Camel fermented milk in an isolated oasis; Sebseb far from Metlili [97] as an interesting safe case. Local conditions and know-how of fermentation of camel milk are to be documented from this region.

The presence of yeasts is notified in the traditional cheese Bouhezza [31, 32], as well as the local product Michouna [33, 34] but not identified. In those studies like others [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35] the orientation is given to evaluate bacteria. Yeasts are sometimes only quantified as Yeasts and molds even in extensive studies to evaluate the sensitive properties or the chemical characteristics of the famous Bouhezza cheese [99, 100]. Like Dried cheese named Klila, the famous cheese Jbeen Al-Gafs is little studied and was analyzed only for bacteria [11]. Authors certify that yeast and molds are abundant in the final stage after 14 days of maturation.

5.5 Yeast for environmental purposes

First attention to yeasts in the environment is commented previously under human health. 16 isolated species from soil, trees, and particularly drooping pigeons in and around hospitals in urban areas [55, 58, 59] are Candida sp., C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis, C. tropicalis, C. zeylanoides, Cr. albidus, Cr. diffluens (Syn. of Naganishia diffluens), Cr. laurentii, Cr. neoformans, Cr. terreus (Syn. Solicoccozyma terrea), Cr. uniguttulatus, Rhodotorula sp., S. cerevisiae, and others Saccharomyces sp. and Trichosporon sp. We also consider all species of yeast counted as food and dairy contaminants as environmental agents. From beaches, sand affected or under risk to be affected by polluted water or charge of waste were prospected in the western region near Oran [101]. Six registered taxa are; C. albicans, C. zeylanoides, Cr. albidus, Geotrichum sp., Rhodotorula sp., and S. cerevisiae. What remains to be done for this purpose? is to compare this with a clean beach. The wastewater facilities of Mascara in western Algeria were examined to isolate four potentially pathogenic yeasts, C. albicans, C. glabrata, Cr. Neoformans, and Trichosporon sp. [102]. At least 18 species are isolated from particular environments. Recently, Geotrichum candidum was isolated from soils that have been used as a depository of electronic and electrical waste for more than 20 years, around Annaba in the eastern part, and was described as able to degrade in vitro waste of batteries and circuit boards [103]. From lakes, Chott or sebkha (saline soils) previously cited studies were reported in the section of agriculture soils. Within Dayet Oum Ghellaz, a wetland affected by drought conditions near Oran and known as highly lead and cadmium polluted, three yeast species were isolated, Clavispora lusitaniae, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa and Wickerhamomyces anomalus [104] and shown high tolerance to NaCl and growth with heavy metal concentrations. Isolated strains W02 (W. anomalus) and R07 (R. Mucilaginosa) gives a removal of 12.68 ± 0.91 and 15.55 ± 0.72 mg of lead/g of biomass respectively. This is a promising and interesting first result of bioremediation with should be perfected in order to be proposed in real applications. The percentage removal of heavy metals of R. Mucilaginosa was measured in Serbia after 48 h for Cd2+, Zn2+, and Ni2+ and showed 2.11%; 4.99%, and 29.25%, respectively [105]. In Algeria and from an oilfield soil near Hassi Messaoud, the isolated strain YBR of Rhodotorula sp. was tested using wastewater of olive mills as low coast substrates produce biosurfactant [106] and can be used to remove hydrocarbons from polluted soils. Microorganisms produce a large specter of surfactants as extracellular components which have potentially wide properties due to their different chemical structure. They have also antibacterial and antifungal activities as well as they offer a potential use in food processing. Bioconversion of olive mills wastewater was conducted on an experimental scale using to referenced yeast species Yarrowia lipolytica MUCL 28849 and Cryptococcus curvatus ATCC 20509 in order to produce biomass [107]. Even when Y. lipolytica decreases in biomass, the decrease in polyphenol concentration is more than 4 times lower compared to the baseline.

5.6 Research in biotechnology

5.6.1 In applied genetics

From the wild collection, two haploid strains of S. cerevisiae K10 and MYC5 were selected to produce a protoplast fusion with two other commercial strains VDH2 and FXX118 provided by the Swiss company PEC and two other strains S. cerevisiae LGI2 and Kluyveromyces lactis LGK1 selected by the Genetics Laboratory at the Faculty of Biological Sciences (FSB) of the University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediène (USTHB) in Algiers. The protoplastization was carried out using Algerian Helix asperca digestive juice. Three hybrids were obtained at three levels intra-generic, intra-specific and inter-specific and their physiological properties were examined in order to obtain strains that were viable and more tolerant to temperature and alcohol concentration [108]. This case study confirmed technology transfer in developed countries but should not be discontinued. The main reason is the lack of interconnection between research and yeast manufactures, which prefer or stay under the effect of imports. Yeast production units are called upon to be competitive and must have their own research laboratory which values research results instead of only focusing on overseas purchases. The university must also generalize this type of innovative research attempts so that it is taught in graduation and to all courses in the genetics module instead of increasingly theoretical or virtual teaching.

5.6.2 Yeast biomass production

The example of selection of local strains like K. fragilis applied to valorize whey has now been more than 20 years. That of wild S. cerevisiae isolated to be compared with referenced strains. Some selected local strains are sometimes more efficient in biomass production than commercial strains [79, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113]. While, from the case of date palm, obtained yeast biomass is different due to the date varieties and the volume of the equipments [114, 115, 116]. The second advantage is to valorize the renewable low cost substrates and finding other interesting species like Cr. curvatus or Y. lipolytica [107]. The innovative test consists of valorizing olive mill wastewater and also the Opuntia ficus indica peels [117]. Date must stay the lower cost available substrates which need serious industrial orientation, first in yeast production. Obtained yield is about 10% [115]. Whey is also targeted to produce biomass 11–22 g/l. with Kluyveromyces lactis, and 10–13 g/l. K. marxianus and C. versatilis [112].

5.6.3 BioEthanol production

Actually, the effervescence of studies is due to real mutations under the constraints of COVID-19 and the accelerated need for ethanol at the national level. Two species were used; S. uvarum [118, 119] and S. cerevisiae [79, 85, 109, 110, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128] with varied substrates in particular dates and date wastes of several varieties. A newly selected strain showed a modest ethanol production but also phenyl ethanol, glycerol, acetates, and acetic acid [81, 129]. The ethanol yield of 30 ml/125 g from Balanites fruits [130, 131] is less than what we obtained with dates, which give 300–600 ml/1 kg dates [118]. Banana gives by far past 9 l/100 Kg [47]. To further increase bioconversion yield, a practical nature by trying to target other species of yeast such as other substrates, and even if dates are the most available, we must not forget the peelings of fruits and vegetables in the juice factories. The mixture of grape juice and date must improve yield at 160 g/L. [125]. Three major constraints need to be taken as strategic debates. First one concerns the varied substrates to be valorized. While common dates stay evident favorite due to their availability, other biomass, such as waste olive and fruit peels, are considered as well as whey. The second concerns the choice of yeast species and does not focalize only on Saccharomyces strains in particular because we know that waste dates and dry ones are rich in sucrose not only glucose. The test of mutant K. marxiamus on glucose substrate gives highly significant ethanol but lower on sucrose medium [132]. The third is that of fundamental cellular pathway of ethanol production. The selection of new wild strains gives a chance to tolerate ethanol concentration and thus can produce more efficiency [133, 134] but there are other ways to produce glycerol, acetate, and phenyl ethanol. We should know how we can concentrate on the way to produce ethanol only. We borrow from [133] the diagram of ethanol biosynthetic pathway (Figure 10) in which glycerol, 2,3-butanediol, and acetate are produced, although less than ethanol. To maximize the productivity of ethanol it is necessary to minimize the flux of carbon toward glycerol and 2,3-butanediol. The reality of ethanol production route is often masked by the classic rule of sugar transformation into ethanol as being a single theoretical scheme where nothing needs to be modified.

Figure 10.

Ethanol biosynthetic pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae [133].

5.6.4 Vinegar production: the best way to improve traditional process

Vinegar can be defined as a product obtained exclusively through biotechnological processes by double fermentation, alcoholic and acetic fermentation of liquids, or other substances of agricultural origin [134]. Traditional vinegar constitutes one of the natural products. It is obtained as biological vinegar from the fermentation of varied fruits. In addition to grapes and apples, dates are often presented in Algeria as ancestral ones using date varieties, and essentially those of low market values. Traditional way consists of double fermentation simultaneously and usually, has alcohol digress superior to what is accepted by standards and commercial legislation [7, 21]. Date vinegar is pronounced in flavor with a sweet taste due to esters produced by microorganisms. The initial sugar rate is not transformed totally at the end of maturation for 45 days. Thus the taste is usually sweeter [7, 21, 118, 135]. Due to the date varieties or to the process itself, sometime the total acidity of 2,5% is less than what is recommended. The spontaneous flora is showed more adequate but the resulting vinegar should be better with separating phases [118, 136].

Vinegar obtained from pomegranate, apple, and prickly pear are also made, but little research is done. Fruit vinegars have more reputation for health purposes. Experimentally biological vinegars have been shown to regulate lipid metabolism and decrease liver damage in high-fat-fed rats [137]. With apples the situation is similar and the main goal to prepare the vinegar is to valorise the huge losses of apples due to frost and convert them into producing a food health byproduct [138]. In addition to Ethanol and Acetic acid, traditional vinegar from dates contains [136]; Formic acid (to treat warts), Acetaldehyde (Ethanal), which gives ethanol by oxygenation, 1-hydroxy-2-propanone, 1–3 Butandiol, 2-Butanol, 1 Methyl Ester Formic acid (Fumigant and larvicide), 1–3 di-hydroxy propanone, 2,3-Dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4 h-pyran-4-one. The richness of those components explains or argues for the use of traditional vinegar in popular care methods and opens new perspectives for evaluating the nutritional properties of organic vinegars. The 1–3 di-hydroxy propanone is used in treatment of Vitiligo on exposed areas [98] and the 2,3-Dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4 h-pyran-4-one is an antioxidant [139].

5.6.5 Yeasts as the source of enzymes

Twelve yeast species are tested to produce varied enzymes and also to valorise different substrates as well as fruit wastes. Aureobasidium pullulans on tomato pomace produces polygalacturonase [68] and also Cellulase, Amylase, protease, and lipase in an experimental purpose valorising fruit and beet peels [87]. Lipase is produced by Candida boidinii isolated from olive pomace [84], Ustilago cynodontis isolated from saline soil [71], Vishniacozyma tephrensis [87] and Yarrowia lipolytica [84]. α-Amylase is produced by C. glabrata isolated from saline soil and valorising whey [75], C. guillierrnondii and C. tropicalis [86], Clavispora lusitaniae [88, 140], Schwanniomyces sp. [67] and Ustilago cynodontis [71]. Cellulase is produced by A. pullulans [87] and U. cynodontis [71]. The protease is produced by A. pullulans [87], Cr. neoformans[74], and U. cynodontis [71]. Maltase is produced by C. lusitaniae [88]. The first step of application is given by selected strains ABS7 of C. lusitaniae to purify the enzyme amylopullulanase in order to be used in laundry detergent [141]. A toxin from killer effect is targeted to be applied against food spoilage [142] and the third promising case came from the potential use of pectinase in clarification of fruit juices [143].

Particular attention should be given to cellulases. The case of Algerian Green energy progress plan has a potential of 0.67 Million Ton Oil Equivalent (Mtoe) from three sources of lignocellulosic; Alfa, olive pomace, and cereal straw [144]. Elsewhere, the author indicates that with the adoption of new energy crops and the strengthening of cereal technologies, Algeria would increase its bioprocesses energies up to 73.5 Mtoe and 58.9 Mtoe from these sources of biomass. We must consider more important, the lignocellulosic waste abandoned in palm groves with more than 20 Million date palms, giving at least 200.000 tons of waste, which is easy to use. This rate is suspected to increase by 4,5% by 2030 [145]. In addition to S. cerevisiae, selected strains concern also K. marxianus and P. pastoris [146].

5.7 Means of combating pathogenic yeasts

Honey is logically the first natural product which was applied against C. albicans and Rhodotorula sp. [147]. Traditional vinegar shows an effect on C. albicans [23] that is probably due to the presence of formic acid, formic acid methyl ester, and or 1–3 dihydroxy propanone. Essential oils of Citrus sinensis and Citrus lemonum give a positive impact against C. albicans [148]. Cymbopogon citratis extract has an inhibitory activity on C. albicans and C. tropicalis [149]. Essential oils of Myrtus communis and Myrtus nivellei were applied against C. albicans, C. parapsilosis, C. tropicalis, Cr. neoformans and also those isolated from vulvo-vaginal candidose patients C. guillermondii et C. krusei [150, 151]. Essential oils of Origanum floribundum, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Thymus ciliates has an effect on C. albicans isolated from bovine mastitis [62]. That of Cinnomomum aromaticum and Syzygium aromaticum should encourage their use against C. tropicalis, C. albicans, Cr. neoformans, Cr. salbidus, and Geotrichum capitatum. Terfezia claveryi crud extract dissolved in ethyl acetate has an effect on C. albicans [152]. The lichen Xanthoria parietina extract was tested against 4 strains isolated on patients in Thenia hospital (Algeria); C. albicans, C. parapsilosis, Trichosporon sp., and Malassezia sp. Two cases; C. parapsilosis and Malassezia sp. were mildly sensitive [153]. The isolated strain codified E96 and cited as actinomycete showed an antagonistic effect against pathogenic yeast; Cr. albidus, Cr. diffluens, and Cr. Neoformans [58]. Other cases of microorganisms were tested against referenced strains of C. albicans but all of those results stay at the experimental step only. From the marine ecosystem, Cystoseira stricta extract inhibits the referenced strains C. albicans [154]. Asparagopsis armata extract has an inhibitory activity with 0,58 mg/ml on the C. albicans IP 444 but with 2,34 mg/ml on C. albicans ATCC 1023 [155] showing the contrast within strains.

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6. Conclusion

Yeast species inventoried in Algeria constitute a forgotten part of biodiversity. It aims to promote studies of yeasts oriented toward economic and cultural services. Derived from soils, plants, and animals, yeasts characterize fermented foods and drinks and can improve the quality of citizen’s life. Those who refer to care in hospitals logically deserve special attention because they can be sources of complications for patients and require additional hospitalization costs. The yeasts inventoried reached 131 taxa (Annexe 1); 27 related to human health, 30 animal health, 27 from dairy products, 24 isolated from the soil, 41 taxa from agricultural products (grapes dates, olives, roots, ...), and 17 isolated from the environment (Trees, feints of pigeons, beaches, landfills). Biotechnonlogies concern 44 taxa (Biomass, Ethanol, enzymes, esters). 16 selected natural products inhibit 14 yeast species. This rich information should be used to establish a national network and help stakeholders assess and make their contributions. The inventory is not completely exhaustive because there are probably unlisted works. Anyway, the inventory will remain continuously open in view of the progress of studies which are increased by the adoption of molecular tools. Yeasts are closely linked to socio-economic purposes relating to traditions (baking, vinegars, dairy products, yeast food supplements for animals) or referred to in modern industrial processes (biomasses, ethanol, and enzymes). Their studies have socio-economic impacts linked to the benefits derived; 1) the mastery of human care with repercussions on the medical care of patients and on the strategy for the use of antibiotics, 2) in increasing milk and meat yields, 3) in environmental issues including waste treatment and depollution. The link between ancestral traditions and scientific explorations increases the chances of serving the national economy and should encourage people not to depend solely on imports. The use of biomass or ethanol is one of the most urgent needs to be supported in a national strategic plan which gives concrete form to renewable energies. Testing the production of ethanol and its mixture in the fuel is possible, but carefully choose the proprietary biomass to be transformed. Dates, waste from olive groves, and the lost share of cellulose in palm groves are most promising.

Updating the national directory of identified accessions is the first step in the collaboration between specialists to honor the standard of biodiversity inventories. A network of national skills should be set up to promote prospecting in various environments because what remains to be done undoubtedly represents 99%. We are keen to complete this initial list with a consortium of national specialists in this complex and diverse field. This can be considered an important step because it is necessary to establish a national repository of strains and listed species. The Algerian Pasteur Institute, with experience and capabilities, can fulfill this role, but it makes sense to be more specialized in pathogenic species and their antagonists. The strains prospected in other fields such as agriculture, environment, and food technology require greater attention in strengthening the technical capacities of other institutions. Whatever the applications, the repository justifies being targeted by the recently created National GenBank. The main reason is to standardize identifications, promote selected strains and establish the national register of biological resources.

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Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Mr. A. Medjahed, Director Ge-neral of INESG for his encouragement and his patience during the period of writing this synthesis. Pr Salim Mokran and Sonia Raci of the LBSM, at the Ecole Normale Supérieure are kindly thanked for their help in taking photos and exchanging ideas.

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Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Annexes

Annexes I and II referred to in this chapter are available at: https://bit.ly/3wbo74l.

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Written By

Abderrahmane Benkhalifa

Submitted: August 31st, 2022 Reviewed: December 23rd, 2022 Published: February 21st, 2023

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